That is, after the divisions of Alexander’s empire had existed for some time. The empire of Rome arose gradually, and attained supremacy only after the divisions of the Macedonian Empire had become weak. The prophecy applies to Rome in both its pagan and papal forms. There appears to be a blending of application, certain features applying to both, others more specifically to one or the other (see on ch. 8:11). That papal Rome was, for all practical purposes, the continuation of the Roman Empire is a well-established fact of history:

“Whatever Roman elements the barbarians and Arians left ... were ... put under the protection of the Bishop of Rome, who was the chief person there after the Emperor’s disappearance.... The Roman Church in this way privily pushed itself into the place of the Roman World-Empire, of which it is the actual continuation; the empire has not perished, but has only undergone a transformation.... That is no mere ‘clever remark,’ but the recognition of the true state of the matter historically, and the most appropriate and fruitful way of describing the character of this Church. It still governs the nations.... It is a political creation, and as imposing as a World-Empire, because the continuation of the Roman Empire. The Pope, who calls himself ‘King’ and ‘Pontifex Maximus,’ is Caesar’s successor” (Adolf Harnack, What Is Christianity? [New York; G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1903], pp. 269, 270, italics in the original).

The Greek versions read “sins,” a translation that may be obtained from the Hebrew by a change in the Masoretic pointing.

 There may be a reference here to various nations, or possibly specifically the Jews, filling up the cup of their iniquity (see Gen. 15:16; Ed 173-177).

 Probably an allusion to Deut. 28:49-55.

 Heb. chidoth, “enigmatic statements,” as in Num. 12:8, “riddles,” as in Judges 14:12; Eze. 17:2, or “perplexing questions,” as in 1 Kings 10:1. Some believe the meaning here is “ambiguous speech,” or “double dealing.”

That is, to assume power.